Inebriated Communication: Determining Alcohol’s Effect on Young Adults’ Speech Patterns

Sociolinguistics

Justine Jue, Myra Abdallah, Julia Gevorgian, Ryan Bowman

Alcohol consumption does not just affect the way you may act, but can also have a great effect on what you say as well. In this study, we determine how alcohol consumption affects the ways young adults communicate and articulate their speech. Our research focused on articulation, speed of speech, communication fluidity, changes in intonation, and creativity of responses. Given previous research that analyzes how alcohol can affect communication style and speech, we anticipated to find differences in the way individuals communicate when drunk versus when sober. Our research was focused on students attending UCLA ages 21-23 and looked at their speech patterns as they read a provided quote and analyzed their responses when asked to conduct an email when drunk versus sober. Our study provided interesting results following the interviews conducted with our willing participants showing that there is a noticeable difference in communication and speech style following intoxication.

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Background

At the age of 21 years old, upon reaching the legal drinking age, young adults begin to indulge in drinking among peers, boosting their sociability. With social drinking being at an all-time high for individuals of this age group, differences can be examined in the way that people communicate when they are intoxicated versus when they are sober. Alcohol is known to have a considerable effect on cognitive ability and motor coordination, which in turn impairs speech production (Hollien et al., 2001). Research conducted on the impact of alcohol on first and second languages has indicated that inebriated individuals are likely to have slower speech and problems articulating their thoughts into words (Offrede et al., pg.683). Other studies have also demonstrated the ways in which alcohol consumption affects speech. In a study by Tisljár-Szabó et al., it was found that subjects made significantly more speech errors and took more pauses when speaking in an alcohol-influenced state (Tisljár-Szabó et al., 1989). Similarly, a study conducted by Martin and Pisoni found that alcohol consumption had considerably reduced subjects’ speaking rate as they prolonged vowels and consonants (Martin & Pisoni, 1989). In summary, research on this topic has generally concluded that intoxication causes articulation rate to decrease, pauses to increase, and more speech errors to be committed. In conducting our own research and collecting our data, we expected to find similar results consistent with previous studies. For our project, we hoped to explore the ways in which alcohol consumption might affect speech articulation and communication. 

Methods

To determine the effect of alcohol on speech, we each interviewed three of our friends, who are UCLA students ranging from the ages of 21-23. Our study was a within-subject experiment as we used the same subjects for the sober and drunk parts of our study to help ensure internal validity. In “Effects of alcohol on the acoustic-phonetic properties of speech: Perceptual and Acoustic Analyses. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research,” they stated that having the participants experience every level of your study for this specific design will give you the most reliable results (Martin & Pisoni, 1989). To collect our data, we had our friends read a passage aloud and verbally pretend to write an email to a professor asking for an extension on an assignment while sober. With their permission, we audio-recorded them while they spoke so we could analyze their speech patterns. We listened and took notes of each participant’s audio recording, sober and drunk, and compared notes afterward. We wanted to see whether there were differences in the speed of their speech, the words they used, and how they pronounced their words sober versus drunk. We chose this way of interviewing our friends to answer our research question because, normally, one’s responses vary when they are drunk, so our two methods would exemplify what we were looking for. 

Results and Analysis 

When collecting and analyzing our data, we found differences in the way that our participants read the provided quote in a sober state versus an intoxicated state. When intoxicated, 2 participants read the quote faster, 9 participants read the quote slower, and 1 participant read it at the same rate. Among most of our participants, alcohol consumption caused a decrease in articulation rate, which is consistent with the findings of previous studies.

For the email portion of our study, we saw many of our participants show changes in their speech when they were sober versus drunk. Some of the main differences we viewed were the number of words they used and the creativity of their responses. For example, while recording the verbal email sober, one participant talked for 18 seconds about how they would ask for an extension. In their response, they were direct, concise, and used professional language. However, when they did this part again while intoxicated, they talked for 51 seconds. This same participant was also much more creative in their response while intoxicated and paused frequently. Additionally, each participant became much more casual with their speech, and many of them exemplified a great amount of laughter and enthusiasm in their responses when they were intoxicated. One of the last differences we saw while intoxicated was that participants started utilizing filler words such as “um” and “like,” which caused more pauses in their responses. Overall, there was a notable difference in our participants’ responses when drunk versus when sober, with our participants loosening their communication styles. 

Discussion and Conclusion

While conducting our research and looking at our results, we realized the limitations that occurred during our experiment. Although we found there to be differences in speech within each respondent from being sober and intoxicated, these differences varied as the level of intoxication was different for each respondent. This is because even when trying to control the amount of alcohol we gave each respondent, the variation in height and weight of each of the respondents affected how intoxicated each individual got. Another possible limitation was that the respondents had knowledge that they were being studied, which may have resulted in them trying to control their responses more and concentrating more on the words and phrases they were saying. This could also result in them exaggerating certain things when speaking to make it seem like they were either more intoxicated or sober than they actually were. Finally, even though our results show that alcohol is able to cause differences in speech, our study only focused on young adults as respondents. As a result, the research that we did may not be an accurate representation of the effects alcohol has on speech for the general public, as there may be variations with age that could occur. 

With the consumption of alcohol, we found that our participants’ tone, speed, words chosen, and focus were all affected for some more than others. For some individuals, these components varied, with some having no change, some having changes in some areas, and others having all these changes present in their interview. In “Alcohol’s Effect on Some Formal Aspects of Verbal Social Communication,” Smith et al. were interested in the variation that the dosage of alcohol provides for the level of inability to communicate in comparison to when sober (1975). Our research supported Smith et al.’s findings in that alcohol did have an effect on the way individuals communicate (1975). Their findings suggested that even in low doses of alcohol consumption, there were differences in the way that their participants communicated when drunk versus when sober. Our findings were similar in that when our participants consumed alcohol, there was a noticeable difference in communication. Individuals consuming alcohol are, therefore, likely to have an impact on the way they communicate, whether great or minimal. The way people articulate their sentences, their tone, the speed of their speech, their focus, and even the words chosen are all components that are likely to be affected by alcohol intoxication. 

References

Hollien, H., DeJong, G., Martin, C., Schwartz, R., & Liljegren, K. (2001). Effects of ethanol intoxication on speech suprasegmentals. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 110(6), 3198–3206. DOI: 10.1121/1.1413751.

Martin, C. S., & Pisoni, D. B. (1989). Effects of alcohol on the acoustic-phonetic properties of speech: Perceptual and Acoustic Analyses. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 13(4), 577–587. DOI: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.1989.tb00381.x.

Offrede, T. F., Jacobi, J., Rebernik, T., de Jong, L., Keulen, S., Veenstra, P., Noiray, A., & Wieling, M. (2021). The impact of alcohol on L1 versus L2. Language and speech, 64(3), 681-692. DOI: 10.1177/0023830920953169.

Smith, R. C. (1975). Alcohol’s Effect on Some Formal Aspects of Verbal Social Communication. Archives of General Psychiatry., 32(11), 1394–1398.

DOI: 10.1001/archpsyc.1975.01760290062007.

Tisljár-Szabó, E., Rossu, R., Varga, V., & Pléh, C. (1989). The Effect of Alcohol on Speech Production. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 43(6), 737–748. DOI: 10.1007/s10936-013-9278-y.

Texting; Is it deeper than we think?

Bilingualism, Sociolinguistics

Jaslin Mostadim, Briyana Bekhrad, Sofia Peykar, Talia Behjou, Ashley Javaherian

Imagine you just received this anonymous text, “Hiiii!!😊 ”, would you be able to guess the gender of this message? Well, what if we told you that although stereotypical, if you answered with “woman”, you would be correct. In a world that is majorly socially constructed, our research project attempts to examine the world of SMS communication and the gendered differences between males and females. To do so, our group conducted a two part survey consisting of 25 questions which enable us to decide whether or not communication via text message is gendered based on the following five factors: emoticon use, punctuation, abbreviations, tentativeness, and text length. Once data was collected, an analysis was performed which concluded that four of the five factors studied within our survey agreed with the societal expected norms for men and women when texting. The results indicate that women agreed with four of the five studied factors as they tend to use more emoticons, tentativeness, punctuation and longer texts when communicating in comparison to their male counterparts. As for the fifth factor, our study allows us to deduce that both men and women tend to use abbreviations in a similar fashion when texting. The conducted study found that 90%, were able to successfully answer females as the correct answer for the questions and 73% of participants were able to successfully answer males as the correct answer for some of the questions. This data supports that men and women have distinct communicative styles when texting as the majority of our participants were able to decide what gender that anonymous text was sent from. Our hypothesis was proven mostly correct in that socialized gender stereotypes affect the use of emoticons, punctuation, tentativeness and text lengths when texting.

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Introduction and Background

There is no doubt that texting is one of the major means of communication, especially today. It allows us to communicate with who we please, when we please. But, our topic allows us to dive deep and determine whether there is a difference between male and female texting and if so, how the texting patterns differ. This was done through analyzing their uses of emoticons, punctuation, abbreviations, text length, and tentativeness. We already know that communication styles, more specifically while texting, can differ between other factors such as those in varying generations, but we are looking at exactly how these texting styles and mannerisms contrast between the female and male gender. We have identified a gap when it comes to understanding the miscommunication between males and females when texting, and have deduced that it is due to their opposing texting styles and strategies.

To mention, there are some pre-existing studies on some of our chosen texting patterns, such as Robin Lakoff’s Deficit Theory. Lakoff’s theory explores the idea that the use of tentativeness in communication is favored by women as they text with less certainty (Leaper et al, 2011). Similarly, another collective group of researchers have concluded that there are higher rates of tentative speech whilst texting in comparison to males (Ling et al, 2014). But, our research aims to conclude the genuine reasonings of these text choices and tactics between males and females through analyzing all five factors, and what it implies for the male and female gender categories. With our contribution, we will be able to find the source of this disconnect, understand the male and female texting patterns, and why such tactics exist. Our research is guided by the hypothesis that females and males text in accordance to gendered stereotypes with females using more emoticons, abbreviations, proper punctuation, longer texts, and more tentative messages than males.

Methods

The target sample for our mixed methods approach includes 15 males and 15 females who are undergraduate students from UCLA, of ages 19-23, who regularly engage in text-based communication. The individuals partaking in the study are of homogeneous demographics and middle-class backgrounds. We will collect our data by administering a survey, which will contain two parts. The entirety of our survey will include 25 questions. The first part will include a message and three possible text replies with two questions regarding each of the five factors that we will study. When asked about the aspect we are observing, the response choices will range from least to most expressive. It is coded so that option 1 is hypothesized to be more popular with males while option 3 is coded to be more popular with females. An example of this can be seen in Figure 1. The second part of the survey displays a series of text message conversations that were sent in from our study pool and asks to identify if a male or female was responding. This approach will decipher whether and how SMS texting is gendered and its contributing patterns. This can be seen in Figure 2, which shows an example of a survey question.

Figure 1- An example question from the first part of the survey which is analyzing emoticon use by providing a test message and three response options.

Figure 2- An example question from the second part of the survey which asks whether they expect the response to be given by a male or female.

Results and Analysis

After analyzing our survey results, we found that our research supports the majority of our hypothesis of how texting communication patterns differ between men and females. By analyzing text messages and our conducted survey, it can be inferred that women tend to use more emoticons, punctuation, tentativeness, and longer text messages in comparison to their male counterparts. Although the other factors of our hypothesis were proven correct, we found that abbreviation usage is similar between males and females. These factors were not consistent with 100% of our respondents, but we were able to deduce that four out of the five analyzed factors agree with our hypothesis. As shown in Figure 3, 11/15 females chose option 3 for text length, while only 2/15 males chose option 3. Additionally, 60% of the males choose option 1, which proves our hypothesis in regards to text length. For punctuation, 8/15 females picked option 3, while just 1/15 males chose option 3. Instead the more popular option chosen by the males was option 1, which is shown in Figure 4. For all of the five factors, more than half of the males picked option 1 as their response to the survey questions, while the majority of females tended to pick either option 2 or 3. Also, our research proved that females were more likely to choose option 1 which was coded for males, in comparison to males choosing option 3 which was coded towards females.

Figure 3- Collected data from female participants from our survey regarding the five main factors studied. (First part of the survey)

Figure 4- Collected data from male participants from our survey regarding the five main factors studied. (First part of the survey).

The second part of our survey offered screenshots of text messages where the respondent decides whether they expect the text message to be sent from a female or male. Shown in Figure 5, our results gathered that 90%, or 27/30 participants, were able to successfully answer females as the correct answer for the questions, whereas 10% guessed incorrectly. We also gathered that 73%, 22/30 participants, were able to successfully answer males as the correct answer for some of the questions, whereas 27% guessed incorrectly. These results prove to us that males are less likely to text like females, because more participants were able to correctly answer the questions where the answer was “females.” This demonstrates the clear differences in texting styles between females and males, as most participants immediately identified the responses to some of these questions as female.

Figure 5- Results to the second part of our survey regarding the percentage of participants who answered the questions correctly relating to females or males. (Second part of survey).

A blog post that cross references with our research data discusses the “do’s” and “don’ts” of texting a female. The author of the blog starts out with, “Hello Gentlemen,…” aiming towards men only. Through our own research, we found that women text longer messages, whereas men are vague and text short messages. The author prompts; “If a guy texts me ‘Hey’ and nothing else, how am I to respond? With another “Hey”? or “Hey, How are you?” But then, the guy is making ME do all the heavy lifting of asking how he is doing when he wasn’t courteous enough to inquire how I was doing” (Elenamusic, 2013).” Our study as well as current research indicates that in one way men expect a more detailed response from women. This relates back to our hypothesis that women tend to use longer, more expressive and more tentative texting styles than men, and one reason is because society has socialized this gendered texting style. The author’s example shows the ambiguity in interpreting a short message like “Hey” from a male, focusing on tentativeness in communication, as the recipient is unsure how to respond. This text conversation implies that men’s short messages can put all the pressure on women to try to carry the conversation. This proves to our research how women usually text longer messages rather than men, texting short and vague messages.

Discussion and Conclusion

We analyzed the texting behaviors of male and female undergraduate students uncovering differences in their communication styles. Our findings provide evidence that females often use more emoticons, proper punctuation, tentativeness, longer messages. This is supported by previous literature that suggests that females favor displaying expression through emoticon use (Ceccucci et al, 2013). Additionally, women were found to use more expressive punctuations, following the theme of expressive messages (Waseleski, 2017).

Aligning with previous studies, our results demonstrate that females consistently use more emoticons and longer texts while males use few to none emoticons and fewer words. Emoticons and text length serve as emotional cues, allowing females to emanate their emotions via text-communication. Females were also found to use proper punctuation and abbreviations in their messages to enhance clarity and efficiency in their messages. Lastly, females compose more tentative messages, characterized by the use of hedge words such as “maybe.” Hedge words and tentativeness display uncertainty which aligns with traditional gender norms of masculinity and femininity. Furthermore, females and males tend to display similar patterns when it comes to the use of abbreviations. Keong’s study agrees with our findings as it explains that males and females use abbreviations at similar rates (Keong et al, 2012).

Our study highlights the importance of understanding gendered differences in texting to improve communication. As online communication continues to grow, face to face conversations become less prevalent. Messages can easily be misconstrued over text. Raising awareness of gender differences can contribute to reducing misconceptions of messages, enhancing interpersonal interactions and communication efficiency. Future research should explore these texting behaviors considering additional factors such as cultural influences and personality traits. Broadening the scope of studies such as this can create a more comprehensive understanding of digital communication as it becomes a permanent aspect of our future.

References

Abdulrazaq, A. Gill, S. K., Noorezam, M., & Keong, Y.C., (2012). Gender Difference and Culture in English Short Message Service Language among Malay University Students. 3L: The Southeast Asian Journal of English Language Studies, 18(2), 67–74

Baron, N. S., Ling, R., Lenhart, A., & Campbell, S. W. (2014). “Girls Text Really Weird”: Gender, Texting and Identity Among Teens. Journal of Children and Media, 8(4), 423–439. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2014.931290

Ceccucci, W., Peslak, A., Kruck, S.E., & Sendall, P.,. (2013). Does Gender Play a Role in Text Messaging? Issues in Information Systems, 14(2), 186–194. https://doi.org/10.48009/2_iis_2013_186-194

Leap, C., Robnett, R. D. (2011). Women Are More Likely Than Men to Use Tentative Language, Aren’t They? A Meta-Analysis Testing for Gender Differences and Moderators. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35(1), 129–142. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684310392728

Music, E. (2014). The Do’s and Don’ts of Texting a Girl. The Single Guys Guide to Dating. https://singleguysguidetodating.wordpress.com/2013/11/08/the-dos-and-donts-of-texting- a-girl/

Waseleski, C. (2006). Gender and the Use of Exclamation Points in Computer-Mediated Communication: An Analysis of Exclamations Posted to Two Electronic Discussion Lists. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 11(4), 1012–1024. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00305.x

InterGen Connect: Bridging the Communication Gap Between Generations in the Workforce

Sociolinguistics

Roksana Kohansedgh, Ryan Kolaini, Melissa Mehrabifar, Shawhin Sahabi

Working in a professional environment, online communication can be challenging, particularly across generations. After exploring Generation Z (1997-2012) and Baby Boomers (1946-1964), we hypothesized that they have undeniably different styles of communication that lead to misunderstandings and inefficiencies in the workforce. Baby Boomers typically prefer email communication and phone calls, while Generation Z highly prefers the use of informal, digital communication through social media and text message. Using our own methods, we analyzed this research by conducting a study at a law office, surveying 20 employees including both genders, aged 18-27 and 60-69. With the use of existing research, a background was introduced to gather data on why exactly these generations prefer a certain style of communication. Delving into the findings of our own research, the results were apparent: Boomers prefer formal language and traditional communication platforms, whereas Generation Z leans towards a relaxed approach, using slang and emojis. This generational difference showed the inefficiency in the ability to communicate effectively with one another in the discussion section. Finally, in order to bridge the gap, implications and cross generational training were introduced in the conclusion to facilitate knowledge in communicating effectively between the two cohorts.

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Introduction

Bounded by the demands of the modern workforce, mutual respect and collaboration is formed through effective communication. The research delves into two distinct groups, 10 Baby Boomers (aged 60-69) and 10 Generation Z (aged 18-27), collaborating in a law office. By analyzing and conducting our own research on their communication styles and patterns, their differences in communication through lexicality and formality are unveiled, and uncovers the misunderstandings of how the two cohorts communicate, ultimately aiming to resolve misunderstandings. This research is driven by its research question: How do communication styles differ among the two generations in the workforce, and what influences these variations within the workforce? By analyzing existing research as well as our own research, we aim to uncover the reasons behind their differences in communicating, as well as propose. This will help create a more inclusive and effective workplace where everyone can communicate smoothly and understand each other better.

Background

In society, Baby Boomers are known to have grown up in an era with limited technology, and therefore relying entirely on traditional communication methods. Viewing it as a sign of professionalism and authority, Baby Boomers value formality and directness when communicating. In an article by Jennifer (M.I) Loh, Jane Strachan and Raechel Johns, it is revealed that Baby Boomers preferred exemplifying a “professional” demeanor when communicating online in professional contexts. 80% of Baby Boomers revealed that they are more thorough with their grammar and overall language when texting their colleagues than when they text or email friends or family. (Loh, Strachan, & Johns p. 1522, 2021). This highlights their belief in holding a position of authority when in the workplace, unwilling to stray away from the traditional manner of communication. Conversely, the informality of communication that may seem unprofessional to the Baby Boomer generation, is seen as “direct” to Generation Z. Since Generation Z essentially grew up around the use of advanced technology, they are entirely comfortable with a plethora of online communication platforms, and prefer a more informal style of communication. In a study done by Bencsik Andrea, Horváth-Csikós Gabriella, and Juhász Tímea, the data depicted in a chart revealed that “The boundaries of work and entertainment overlap” (Bencsik, p. 95, 2016). The data is then further explained when it says that because they grow up around technology, Generation Z feels comfortable in a digital, less formal environment, permeating into their work lives. The abbreviations they use make for more of a direct and quick approach to communicating. (Bencsik, p. 93, 2016). The use of slang, like “lol” “and omg” are used in order to be more efficient and comfortable with their coworkers when communicating.

Methods

In order to effectively explore and investigate communicative differences between these two different generations, a mixed-methods study was conducted, analyzing both qualitative and quantitative data. In terms of qualitative data, we conducted a study with 20 employees from a law office, consisting of 10 Baby Boomers (aged 60-69) and 10 employees from Generation Z (aged 18-27) on a google form survey. Narrowing in our research, we examined each cohort’s communicative styles, online preferences for communication platforms, formality, and use of slang. The survey tested their comfortability with certain online communication platforms through close-ended questions, and asked open-ended questions on how they would personally respond to emails and text messages, monitoring their slang, formality, or lack thereof. Additionally, it is important to note that, to avoid bias, we collected data on age and gender at the end of the survey.

Results and Analysis

In terms of the analysis and results of the data, it revealed a significant difference in generational communication style, contributing to the various difficulties communicating across generations.

QUALITATIVE INSIGHTS:

Our qualitative insights revealed that Baby Boomers emphasize formality and proper grammar, viewing it as a sign of professionalism and authority. The apparent Baby Boomer showed a more formal, authoritative approach. As shown in both examples, full sentences, proper punctuation, and directness is used. Within our qualitative insights, we observed distinct differences in the use of language and formality. (See Image one and two)

In Image two, it is shown how Generation Z often uses slang and informal language in a given scenario, favoring brevity and efficiency over traditional formality. In contrast, in image one, the Baby Boomers’ use in formal language asserts their authoritativeness, allowing for a more traditional approach.

QUANTITATIVE INSIGHTS

The data in the chart shows a clear preference for communicative platforms between Generation Z and Baby Boomers. We focused on two different types of platforms of communication: email and instant messaging (like instagram, snapchat, and text message).

Baby Boomers use email for 80% of their professional communications, preferring its formal format. They use instant messaging for only 20%, due to its informal structure and their preference for traditional methods. In contrast, Generation Z uses email for only 30% of their communications, often when required. They prefer instant messaging, which makes up 70% of their workplace communications, valuing its efficiency and quick interactions.

DISCUSSION

Baby Boomers: The Formal Communicators

Baby boomers grew up in times of more face-to-face communication than virtual reality, and formal written communications were very popular. They associate formality with being professional and reliable. It comes; therefore, more naturally to them that they favor emails, formal meetings, and structured ways of communication. Their style of formal, direct lines of communication actually goes to make a point in the Baby Boomers’ favor—that professionalism lies in good punctuation and clear-sighted authority. As Venter (2017) states, “Baby Boomers communicate mostly using face-to-face communication, telephone conversations and e-mail. They will seldom use blogs, wikis, social networking sites and texting or instant messaging in more formal situations, such as in the work context.”

Generation Z: Digital Native

On the other hand, Generation Z was brought up on the internet and the digital means of communication, and therefore, they embrace the style of casual and instant communication. They prefer informal language that is rich in slang, dramatic expressions, and even emojis to express emotions. They prefer digital platforms more: social media and messaging applications for communication. This is mainly a representation of a world that is fast and interconnected, where it is important to be quick and efficient in communication.Taneja, Wu, and Edgerly (2018) highlight that “Generation Z prefers to communicate through more private social media platforms such as Snapchat and Whisper.”

Our study identifies the distinct communication styles of Baby Boomers and Generation Z, highlighting why misunderstandings occur in the workplace. Baby Boomers prefer formal, structured communication, while Generation Z favors informal, rapid styles, leading to potential friction. Subramaniam and Razak (2014) note, “There is also the element of interjection such as ‘la’, ‘ah’ and ‘lah’ in the posts; it shows the informal style of posts.” Understanding these preferences allows organizations to tailor strategies for a more inclusive environment.

CONCLUSION

When focusing on the communication gap between Baby Boomers and Generation Z, it is essential to scope the different aspects of intergenerational interaction in a cohesive and productive work environment. This research project reveals the different communication preferences and patterns of the two generations, and how each generation has many differences. When highlighting these differences, Baby Boomers prefer a more formal touch to their communication, whereas Generation Z drives towards convenience and simplicity through social media and messaging apps. These differences not only reflect the differences between the people born in those particular generations but also reflect how advancements in our society have played out.

Our research proposed implementing specific training protocols to address generational communication challenges, fostering empathy and reducing confusion. Programs like “Global Courseware” and “SkillPath” can create a healthy, transparent work environment with flexible communication. For example, combining email updates with instant messaging for quick follow-ups can help bridge communicative differences. These strategies enhance collaboration and understanding, creating a more inclusive workplace. Our research not only offered solutions to communication barriers but also fostered a healthier workplace, reflecting rapid technological advancements and improving productivity and job satisfaction.

Additionally, we provide links to relevant podcasts and news broadcasts that delve deeper into generational communication differences and strategies for effective workplace communication.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VicCUIEwpLk

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KteUn6scFqE

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6LD8CZIUeDU

Acknowledgements

We thank the employees of the participating law office for their time and insights, and our academic advisors for their guidance and support in this research project.

By fostering an understanding of generational communication differences, we can create more effective and cohesive workplaces.

References

Bencsik, A., Juhász, T., & Horváth-Csikós, G. (2016). Y and Z Generations at Workplaces. Journal of Competitiveness, 6(3), 90–106. https://doi.org/10.7441/joc.2016.03.06

Loh, J. (M. I., Strachan, J., & Johns, R. (2021). How rude is rude: an exploratory study among Australian Millennials, Generation “X” and Baby Boomers mobile phone users. Behaviour & Information Technology, 40(14), 1516–1527. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2020.1764106

Subramaniam, V., & Razak, N. A. (2014). Examining language usage and patterns in online conversation: Communication gap among Generation Y and Baby Boomers. Procedia, Social and Behavioral Sciences, 118, 468–474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.02.064

Taneja, H., Wu, A. X., & Edgerly, S. (2018). Rethinking the generational gap in online news use: An infrastructural perspective. New Media & Society, 20(5), 1792–1812. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444817707348

Venter, E. (2017). Bridging the communication gap between generation Y and the baby boomer generation. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 22(4), 497-507. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2016.1267022

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Emoji Secrets: Unveiling How Gender and Sexuality Influence Emoji Usage among UCLA Undergraduates

Bilingualism, Sociolinguistics

Fangfei Liu, Nuoya Liu, Suzy Xu, Shengliang Jin, Kelly Wu

In the digital communication era, emojis have become a new form of vibrant visual language that transcends words into icons that convey emotions and ideas. Imagine this: It’s a typical Friday evening, and a group of friends at UCLA are planning their weekend via text messages. One friend, excited about the upcoming party, sends a string of emojis – a bottle of champagne , a partying face , and a confetti ball . Another friend, more reserved, responds with just a simple thumbs up. As these messages fly back and forth, a fascinating question arises: what do these tiny digital symbols say about us? Can these tiny digital symbols reveal deeper insights into our identities and social interactions? In fact, emojis not only distribute information but also reveal more profound aspects of an individual’s identity. This research focuses on the intersection between gender and sexuality and how these identity factors play a role in influencing emoji usage among UCLA undergraduate students. By launching a mixed-methods approach, the study combines statistical analysis and qualitative content examination to indicate trends and patterns in emoji selection. The findings highlight significant differences in emoji use across genders and sexual orientations and provide insights into the various ways that individual identities shape their digital expressions.

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Introduction

👋👋 Hey! The rise of digital communication has introduced emojis as a new form of language, expressing emotions, ideas, and more. Emojis hold symbolic significance and cultural connotations, making them a rich subject for linguistic analysis and in-text communication studies. Here’s the link to a TED talk titled “Emoji: The Language of the Future” by Tracey Pickett, which discusses the cultural significance and evolution of emojis.

When investigating in-text communication dynamics, especially in the context of gender and sexuality, Deborah Tannen’s difference model of communication (2007) lays a theoretical foundation, suggesting that men and women use distinct styles of speech: men typically adopt a report style focused on conveying information, whereas women use a rapport style aimed at building relationships with high involvement.

Despite growing research, there’s a gap in understanding how gender and sexuality intersect with emoji usage. Our study aims to investigate how these identity categories influence emoji use among UCLA undergraduates. By employing mixed methods, including statistical analysis and qualitative content analysis, we will identify trends and nuances in emoji selection among different gender and sexual identity groups. This research will contribute to the broader understanding of how diverse identity factors shape digital communication.

Background

Emojis are small digital icons that help with facilitating emotions and expressions during online interactions today. The icons are prevalent among the younger generation, such as college students, who are active users of online communication platforms. Prior research has indicated emojis’ socio-linguistic significance, reflecting the user’s identity, emotional state, and cultural background. Gender and sexuality are two critical factors in examining the dynamics of emoji use, and our research aims to investigate the impact these two factors have on college students’ use of emojis in online conversations.

Gender differences in emoji use have been a subject of interest in existing literature, as highlighted in Herring et al.’s research. They found distinct patterns of emoji use among different gender groups. For instance, women tend to use emojis that express solidarity and support, while men are inclined towards emojis related to sarcasm and teasing (Herring et al. 2018). The influence of sexual orientation on emoji use habits among LGBTQ+ individuals has also been explored by other scholars. Gray, for instance, has noted that emojis serve as in-group codes that aid in identity expression (Gray 2023). Our research will focus on the impact of gender and sexuality on emoji usage among diverse UCLA undergraduate students and discover the characteristics of emoji habits among different groups shaped by their backgrounds.

Methods

In this study, we used a mixed-methods approach (i.e., including statistical analysis and qualitative content analysis) in this study to identify trends, preferences, and nuances in emoji selection among different gender and sexual identity groups.

This research incorporates a convenience sampling, whereby our group members send online Google Forms to a total of 50 UCLA students to collect data on their use of emojis. And, our online survey included demographic questions about race, school year, gender, and sexual orientation. It also included the collection of screenshots of emojis that they used frequently. Finally, after completing the data collection, we analyzed all the data by using R studio and

Excel software to assess the statistical correlation between gender identity and the frequency of using certain emojis.

Results and Analysis

After collecting responses from all 50 UCLA undergraduates, our research presents a comprehensive analysis of the data collected on emoji usage among undergraduate students at UCLA by including both quantitative data and tabular analysis as well as qualitative content analysis. First, the data were processed to create a dataset with the frequency and types of emojis used by different groups. The pie graphs shown below illustrate the emoji frequency based on students’ gender while indicating that female students use emojis more frequently than male students do. For instance, the number of female students who selected the option “often” is 23% higher than that of male students; there are more than 1⁄5 of the male students select the option “occasionally” to show their dispreferred attitude of utilizing emojis when texting with others.

We also created some charts showing the top 5 most frequently used emojis based on students’ gender and sexual orientation. On the left side, charts 1 & 2 show the most frequent types of emojis that male and female students use during online communication. From here, we could see that the average number of different emojis used by females was significantly higher, indicating a broader expressive range. More specifically, emojis such as 😭, ❤️, 😍, and 🥺 were predominantly used by female students, emphasizing a wider variety and a relatively higher frequency of emoji usage. On the contrary, male students demonstrated a more limited and functional use of emojis. Emojis included 😂, 😎, 👌 and reflected their preference for simpler, less emotionally varied communication.

On the right side, charts 3 & 4 show the emoji frequency based on students’ sexual orientation as LGBTQ+ students exhibited distinctive patterns in emoji usage. While emojis such as ❤️ and 😍 were used by LGBTQ+ members to convey nuanced social interactions, some emojis such as 🤔️, which might not be as prevalent among heterosexual students, were used for unique identity expressions.

Besides doing quantitative analysis, we also focus on content analysis which examines the context and meanings behind emoji usage for each gender and sexuality group through collecting screenshots of their recent in-text conversation where they used emoji. From the gender perspective, female students tend to use emojis to express a wide range of emotions, from joy and love to sadness and empathy. For instance, emojis like 😭 and 🥺 often appear in conversations involving apologies or sharing emotional experiences, indicating a high level of emotional expressiveness; The use of ❤️ and 😍 highlights the importance of emotional support and connectivity in their interactions.

From Image 1, a female student claimed that she used a heart next to a “teaspoon” because she loves their boba. This illustrates her desire of providing emotional feedback to maintain her social bonds with her friends. Nevertheless, male students tend to use a narrower range of emojis to add humor and casualness into their interaction. Emojis such as 😂 and 😎 are commonly used in light-hearted conversations, indicating a preference for maintaining a relaxed and friendly tone. From Image 2, a male student was reacting to a funny video and this indicates his tendency to be friendly and approachable while implicitly showing his preference of having a simple and straightforward conversation.

From the sexuality perspective, members of the LGBTQ+ community use emojis to convey complex social interactions and support. Some emojis which might not be as prevalent among heterosexual students, appear to express empathy and encouragement while highlighting positivity and uniqueness in conversations.

From Image 3, a bisexual female student said that she was wishing her male friend to have a fun night at the club. The emojis such 🥳 and 🎃 reflects the LGBTQ+ users’ different approach to expressing encouragement and connectivity. Conversely, non-LGBTQ+ students tend to utilize a standard set of emojis that are widely understood and conventional in the community. Emojis such as 👍 and 👌 were commonly used to suggest a preference for simplicity and directness during conversation. In Image 4, a heterosexual female student was texting her mom and asking her when she would like to come with her to get a dress for graduation. The appearance of the emoji 😭 reflects a preference for widely recognized emotional expressions while indicating her demand to facilitate clear and efficient communication.

Discussion

The results of our study highlight notable variations in the use of emojis among UCLA undergraduates according to gender and sexual orientation, which has important societal ramifications for interpersonal interactions. In contrast to males, who often use emojis less frequently and instead concentrate on humor or information sharing, women are more likely to utilize a wide variety of emojis to communicate emotions and foster connections. Emojis are a tool that LGBTQ+ people use to communicate who they are and to challenge social standards. By accommodating a variety of communication styles, recognizing these distinctive patterns can promote teamwork in educational and professional contexts, improve relationships with others by encouraging better understanding and empathy, and support the acceptance and normalization of LGBT identities. By adopting these realizations, we may build a more compassionate and diverse society where digital communication tools are tailored to meet the diverse needs of all users.

Conclusion

The findings of this study support our hypothesis that there are significant differences in the frequency and types of emojis used between male and female undergraduate students at UCLA. Female students tend to use emojis more frequently and choose from a wider variety, including emoticons like 🥺, 😭, ❤️, and 😍, indicating high emotional expressiveness. On the other hand, male students prefer a narrower range of emojis such as 😂 and 😎, reflecting humor and casualness in their communication style.

Moreover, our findings suggest that members of the LGBTQ+ community, such as gay and lesbian individuals, use emojis in distinct ways to express identity and convey nuanced social interactions not as prevalent among heterosexual students. LGBTQ+ individuals often use emojis like ✨, 🌟, and 🥳 highlighting positivity, uniqueness, and emotional depth in their digital expressions. In contrast, non-LGBTQ individuals tend to use simpler emojis like 👌 and 👍 and 😭, indicating a preference for directness and simplicity in their communication. These findings have important implications for understanding how gender and sexuality influence emoji usage in digital communication. They shed light on the complexities of digital interaction and social media communication, informing future studies in this area.

References

Bai, Q., Dan, Q., Mu, Z., & Yang, M. (2019). A Systematic Review of Emoji: Current Research and Future Perspectives. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2221. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02221

Gray, M. (2023). Emojis and the Expression of Queer Identity: A Sentiment Analysis Approach. Master’s Thesis, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia.

Herring, S. C., & Dainas, A. R. (2018). Receiver interpretations of emoji functions: A gender perspective. In Proceedings of the 1st International Workshop on Emoji Understanding and Applications in Social Media. Stanford, CA.

Jones, L. L., Wurm, L. H., Norville, G. A., & Mullins, K. L. (2020). Sex differences in emoji use, familiarity, and valence. Computers in Human Behavior, 108, 106305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106305

Pickett, T. (Speaker). (2017, May 17). Emoji: The Language of the Future [Video]. TEDxGreenville. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dzlek8nMrc8

Tannen, D. (2007). You just don’t understand: Women and men in conversation (1st Harper pbk. ed., pp. 74-96). New York, NY: Harper.

Wolf, A. (2004). Emotional expression online: Gender differences in emoticon use. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 3(5). Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/10949310050191809

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Decoding Text Messages: Gender Differences in Communication at UCLA

Bilingualism, Sociolinguistics

Chloe Novinbakht, Kayla Broukim, Donna Yadidi, Shannon Broman, Gabriel Ebrami-Homayun

When it comes to understanding the textual differences between men and women, it can often be difficult to compare the two genders and their similarities and differences. You might be asking yourself if our research proves or contradicts general stereotypes about textual communications between genders. Our study dives into the nuances of texting habits among male and female students aged 18-23 specifically on UCLA campuses. Our research question, “How do men and women at UCLA differ in their text communication?” is answered by our research through analyzing text messages and social media interactions. We uncovered distinctive patterns in emotional expressivity, directness, and language use. This research sheds light on how gender influences digital communication, providing a deeper understanding of the social dynamics at play.

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Introduction

In today’s digital age, text messaging has become a primary mode of communication, especially among university students. But do men and women text differently? This question forms the core of our investigation at UCLA, where we explore gender-associated distinctions in textual communication patterns among students. Understanding the way men and women communicate through text can provide significant insights into broader social dynamics. Our study focuses on several key aspects, including emotional expressivity, directness, and language use. Emotional expressivity examines whether women use more emojis and expressive language than men. Directness assesses if men are more straightforward in their communication compared to women. Language use looks at how vocabulary and grammatical structures differ between genders.

Background

This research will examine our research question: What gender-associated distinctions exist in textual communication patterns between men and women at UCLA? We collected text messages and social media interactions from 10 male and 10 female UCLA students aged 18-23. Our data collection included text samples from ingroup messages (female-to-female, male-to-male) and friend-to-friend text communication between men and women. Additionally, we conducted surveys through Google Forms to assess communication preferences and perceived effectiveness. We analyzed the data using content analysis to uncover patterns in language use, emotional expressivity, and directness.
Methods/ Theories

Our findings contribute to the broader understanding of gendered communication by highlighting how men and women differ in their digital interactions. These differences are influenced by societal norms and expectations, as outlined in Gender Schema Theory and Social Role Theory. Understanding these patterns can help improve communication strategies in educational settings, social interactions, and professional environments.

Gender Schema Theory suggests that societal norms and cultural expectations play a crucial role in shaping gendered communication patterns. For example, women’s use of more expressive and elaborate language may be a reflection of societal expectations for women to be more emotionally attuned and nurturing. Conversely, men’s more direct and less emotionally expressive communication style may reflect societal expectations for men to be more assertive and less emotionally expressive. For example, women might be trained to speak with more qualifiers and hedges, which would be seen in a courteous and accommodating manner. Conversely, men may be urged to speak in a more authoritative and forceful manner, in keeping with stereotypical ideas of what it means to be a man. The way that each gender speaks is perceived through the prism of cultural expectations, which can cause misunderstandings and strengthen gender stereotypes. These behaviors are ultimately sustained by socialization processes.

Social Role Theory provides a useful framework for understanding these differences. According to this theory, the roles individuals occupy within society influence their communication behaviors. Women, who are often socialized into nurturing roles, may use language that is more emotionally expressive and relational. Men who are often socialized into more dominant roles may use language that is more direct and task-oriented. While women may use more expressive language and emojis in casual conversations, they may adopt a more direct and concise communication style in professional or academic contexts. Similarly, men may use more expressive language in certain contexts, such as when communicating with close friends or family members.

Contradiction and Connection

With the former concentrating on cognitive frameworks and the latter on social roles, gender schema theory and social role theory offer complementary viewpoints on how cultural norms impact gendered communication. These may appear to be at odds with one another because social role theory emphasizes external social roles while gender schema theory emphasizes internalized cognitive patterns. In addition, gender schema theory postulates intrinsic cognitive differences while social role theory concentrates on behavior influenced by social positions. The benefit of combining these theories is that they provide a more comprehensive understanding of communication patterns by taking into account the roles played by both internal cognitive processes and external social influences.

Results and Analysis

Understanding these patterns can have practical applications in various settings. In educational contexts, for example, educators can use these insights to develop communication strategies that are more inclusive and effective for all students. In professional settings, understanding gendered communication patterns can help improve team dynamics and communication effectiveness. In social interactions, being aware of these differences can help individuals communicate more effectively with friends, family members, and colleagues. Our findings raise important questions for future research. For example, how do these gendered communication patterns develop over time? Are they influenced more by societal norms and expectations, or by individual personality traits? How do they vary across different cultural contexts? Answering these questions could provide insights into the complex dynamics of gendered communication.

Our analysis revealed several notable differences between male and female texting behaviors. Women were more likely to use emojis, particularly those expressing positive emotions. Men, on the other hand, used fewer emojis and tended to express emotions through words rather than symbols. For example, women frequently used heart emojis when sharing good news, whereas men often used simple phrases like “That’s great!”The difference in emotional expressivity extends beyond emojis. Women’s texts often included more adjectives and exclamations, enhancing the emotional tone of their messages. Men’s messages were generally more direct and concise, while women tended to use more elaborate language, providing context and additional details. For instance, in response to a good grade, a man might text, “Got an A in math,” while a woman might say, “I’m so happy! Just got an A in math after all that studying!” This difference in directness can be attributed to social norms that often associate masculinity with straightforwardness and femininity with a more detailed and context-rich style of communication.

Image-1: Female-to-female contact regarding their responses in image 1 revealed several notable differences between male and female texting behaviors. Emoji usage was higher among women, especially for those representing happy feelings. When communicating positive news, men commonly use straightforward comments like “That’s great!” whereas women more often utilize emojis. Beyond emojis, there is a gap in emotional expressivity. Women tended to use more exclamations and adjectives in their texts, which elevated the emotional content of their writing. This inclination is a reflection of larger societal norms and expectations around gender and emotional expressiveness, where women are typically encouraged to express themselves more and show more care.

Image-2: Male-to-male contact about their responses in image 2 revealed men used fewer emojis and tended to express emotions through words rather than symbols. Texts from men tended to be more direct and information-focused rather than emotionally charged. Women tended to add more context and extra information, while men were typically more direct in their remarks.

The analysis of texting behaviors between genders reveals quantitative insights:

  1. Emoji Usage:

    ○  Women: More likely to use emojis, particularly those expressing positive

    emotions such as heart emojis.

    ○  Men: Used fewer emojis and preferred to express emotions through words.

  2. Textual Expressivity:

    ○  Women: Used more adjectives and exclamations, enhancing the emotional tone of their messages.○  Men: Texts were more straightforward, focusing on the informational content rather than the emotional.

Emotional Expression:

●  Women: Frequently used heart emojis when sharing good news.

●  Men: Often used simple phrases like “That’s great!” to convey similar sentiments.

Societal Norms Reflection:

●  Women: Their texting behavior reflects broader social expectations for women to be more emotionally expressive and nurturing.

●  Men: Their texting behavior reflects societal norms that encourage men to be more assertive and less emotionally expressive.

Data Collected Via SMS/Text Message:

Female-Female: Positive news about getting a grade

Male-Male: Positive news about getting a grade

Female-Female: First Date

Male-Male: First date

Discussion and Conclusions

Our findings contribute to the broader understanding of gendered communication by highlighting how men and women differ in their digital interactions. These differences are influenced by societal norms and expectations, as outlined in Gender Schema Theory and Social Role Theory. In educational contexts, recognizing these differences can guide educators in fostering more inclusive classroom discussions and encouraging balanced participation. For instance, instructors might use these insights to create communication exercises that address both directness and expressiveness, ensuring all students feel comfortable and understood.

In professional settings, understanding gendered communication patterns can enhance team dynamics and improve workplace interactions. For example, training programs that highlight these differences can help team members appreciate diverse communication styles, leading to more effective collaboration and reduced misunderstandings. By recognizing how men and women express themselves, people can tailor their communication to better support and connect with friends, family members, and partners.

Conclusion

In conclusion, our study reveals significant gender differences in text communication among UCLA students. Women tend to use more expressive language and emojis, while men’s communication is more direct and concise. These differences are influenced by societal norms and expectations, as well as the roles individuals occupy within society. Understanding these patterns can help improve communication strategies in settings and provide an understanding of the social dynamics at play.

Ethics Declaration: All participants provided written consent for their text messages to be used in this study.

References

Ceccucci, W., Peslak, A., Kruck, S. E., & Sendall, P. (2013). Does Gender Play A Role In Text Messaging? Issues in Information Systems, 14(2), 186-194. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.48009/2_iis_2013_186-194

Lewis, M., & Lupyan, G. (2019). Gender Stereotypes Are Reflected in the Distributional Structure of 25 Languages. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/7qd3g

Muscanell, N. L., & Guadagno, R. E. (2012). Make new friends or keep the old: Gender and personality differences in social networking use. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(1), 107–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2011.08.016

Rubin, D. L., & Greene, K. (1992). Gender-Typical Style in Written Language. Research in the Teaching of English, 26(1), 7–40. https://doi.org/10.58680/rte199215447

Ogletree, S. M., Fancher, J., & Gill, S. (2014). Gender and texting: Masculinity, femininity, and gender role ideology. Computers in Human Behavior, 37, 49-55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.04.021

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Screaming, Crying, Hyperventilating: Gendered Expressions of Cry-Behavior in Horror

Sociolinguistics

Kara Bryant, Nina Matloob, Sophie Reynoldson, Kayla Sakayan, Makayl Walsh

Deafening screams, fearful gasps, and streaming tears are all common characteristics displayed in one of film’s most prominent genres: horror. Horror films frequently portray situations like violence, villains, and monsters, naturally eliciting distress from the characters involved. Often, the characters exhibit various distress behaviors, including cries, shrieks, and screams. Given recent efforts to advance nuanced female representation in media, has feminism infiltrated the modern horror genre? A prevalent theme in classic horror has involved women being stereotyped as the submissive and helpless victim. Our research question analyzes how horror films perpetuate gender stereotypes through the portrayal of how men and women communicate distress. We created tallies for the instances of cry-behavior in 10 films ranging from 1960-2023. The results aligned with our hypothesis, which is that women exhibit more cry-behavior than men in horror films. In the films post 2000, the gap between cry-behaviors for women and men is smaller than in films made prior. This article discusses how gender ideals have been reinforced or uprooted, and the role of emotionality in horror films.

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Introduction

How do horror films perpetuate gender stereotypes of weakness through the portrayal of how people communicate distress? Analyzing how people communicate distress in horror films through cry-behavior, which is often linked to weakness, instability, and over-emotionality, (Bylsma et al. 2019)  is a valuable way to measure how horror films underpin the notion that women are more emotional than their male counterparts (Brescoll, 2016).  We aim to assess the portrayal of gendered stereotypes by identifying the difference between how men and women communicate distress in horror films and analyzing how these portrayals of gendered behavior have evolved. Through developing an awareness of the media’s subliminal messaging that socializes our views of gendered behavior, we can uncover how to combat the internalization and perpetuation of these stereotypes and cultivate a more feminist lens in film.

Background

Our target population for this study is men and women in horror films. This film genre has become synonymous with the victimization of women. Women are often the victims while men are usually the primary perpetrators of violence, illustrating strong gender imbalances (Manaar Kamil & Jubran 2019). Another stereotype that has been identified in horror films is that women who are sexualized are most often killed first, sending the message that females who express sexuality should be punished (Cowan et al. 1990).  Women are portrayed as naive, clueless, and leading themselves to their murder (Manaar Kamil & Jubran 2019).

While much research has been done on women as victims in horror films, few researchers have examined the specific ways distress is portrayed in these films. This leads us to the aspect of communication that we wish to investigate: how people communicate distress through signs such as screaming, crying, and pleading to find the difference between how men and women are portrayed as communicating distress in horror films. Moscozo (2016) found that the horror genre may be shifting away from the defined stereotypes of women as submissive victims. Therefore, our aim is to assess if the ways gendered portrayals of distress in horror films have also evolved over time.

Methods

We hypothesize that 1) women will demonstrate more cry-behavior than men and 2) films made in the last decade (2013-2023) will show men and women displaying cry-behavior more equally than films from past decades. Each researcher watched two films defined by the “horror” genre, took notes, and tallied how the characters communicate distress and the frequency in which they do so. Five of these films were released after 2014, while the other five films were made prior to 2000.  These films include: Psycho (1960), Carrie (1976), Halloween (1978), Scream (1996), Nightmare on Elm Street (1984), Happy Death Day (2017), Get Out (2017), Us (2019), Pearl (2022), and Five Nights at Freddy’s (2023). We agreed that these films embodied the cultural zeitgeist in their respective times, making them indicators not only of popular horror but cultural moments in film. Our sample includes films with lead characters both white and non-white to minimize race as a confounding variable. We included films led by men and women, with prominent characters of both genders represented.

We coded “cry-behavior” in these films based on the characteristics outlined by Gračanin et al. (2014), including tear production, distress vocalizations, and sobbing. Our group defines distress vocalizations as: shrieks, screams, and gasps while excluding “grunts” as they are more closely identified with pain than distress. We all watched a scene from the film Scream (1996) and individually coded it. Afterwards, we compared our results to ensure our method for identifying cry-behavior was consistent before tallying cry-behaviors in each film. For example, we concurred that a continuation of hyperventilation for multiple minutes counts as one tally, but a sudden gasp during that period would count as two.

Results

Women in horror movies exhibit more cry-behavior than men. Women demonstrated cry behavior 252 times across older and newer films. Men demonstrated cry behavior 64 times. Thus, in the 316 times cry-behaviors were exhibited in all of the films combined, women represented 79.75% of cry-behavior while men accounted for 20.25%.

New horror films (those made in the past decade) present more cry-behavior than old horror films (those made before the year 2000) across both genders. New horror films demonstrate 134% more cry behavior.

Women in horror movies created before 2000 demonstrate cry behavior significantly more than men. In the 135 times cry-behavior was demonstrated in Psycho, Carrie, Halloween, Nightmare on Elm Street, and Scream, women accounted for 122 of those instances, and men only 13. Thus, women represented 90.37% of cry behaviors while men represented 9.63%. Women in horror movies created after 2000, specifically within the last decade, continue demonstrating more cry behavior than men. There were 181 demonstrations of cry-behavior in Get Out, Happy Death Day, Us, Pearl, and Five Nights at Freddy’s combined. Women exhibited cry-behavior 130 times and men 51 times, or 71.82% and 28.18% respectively.

Discussion

Overall, the results support our hypotheses. Women in horror films across past and present decades exhibit significantly more cry-behavior than men, confirming our first hypothesis. Nonetheless, even though women exhibit more cry-behavior than men, the gap is smaller in films produced in the last decade. This highlights strides towards a more equal/feminist lens in films and confirms our second hypothesis. These findings are indicative of how horror films perpetuate stereotypes of women as excessively emotional and weak. Our findings also support the topic of men being conditioned to restrain their emotions as a signal of masculinity. Interestingly, films created in the last decade had more instances of cry-behavior across both genders, which may indicate the audience’s appetite for greater emotional intensity in the films they watch. However, this may also be influenced by confounding variables such as the average runtime of films increasing in recent years.

Overall, female characters typically exhibit cry-behaviors in times of distress and danger, reinforcing the stereotype that women are overly emotional, weak, and unstable. Women display the most cry-behavior in the form of sobbing, screams, gasps, and pleading. Nightmare on Elm Street (1984)  plays into the trope of women expressing cry behavior in moments of vulnerability and weakness when they are attacked while bathing, sleeping, or cornered in isolation by the killer. In Psycho (1960), the only time a male character exhibited cry-behavior was while they were being chased and dressed as a female.

Films from the last decade display the lead female character as a killer who is motivated by her fragile and excessively emotional state. In Pearl (2022), Pearl is the sole perpetrator of violence in the film and conveys a range of emotions from rage to sadness; however, her capriciousness may contribute to stereotypes of women as unable to control their emotions since she tends to kill on a whim of rage. Most of her cry-behavior was coded for sobbing. Similarly, in Carrie (1976), the main character first expresses cry-behavior in connection to her femininity when she gets her first period in the female locker room. She exhibits cry-behavior when being targeted by students and her religious mother for her submissiveness and changing female body. Once Carrie becomes the tormentor, her cry-behavior ceases as she watches her classmates cry and scream. In contrast to modern horror films such as Pearl, Carrie gains autonomy once she sheds her emotional disposition.

The situations where cry-behavior is exhibited shift from responses of distress, to expressions of strength in modern films. For example, in the film Happy Death Day (2017), the main character, Tree, exhibits cry-behavior in states of frustration and anger rather than expressions of helplessness and defeat. In Us (2019), the lead character, Addy, is depicted as excessively emotional by her husband who complains that she overreacts. Nonetheless, Addy exhibits strength when she fights the killers. Addy utilizes cry-behavior most frequently during physical encounters, such as stabbings, beatings, and burns, a response to overcoming physical pain rather than fear. Her children exhibit cry-behavior while being held by Addy, which supports how Addy maintains strength and resilience despite the pain.   

Interestingly, modern horror also depicts female rage and instability as tools for female characters to weaponize. Rose, the female lead and perpetrator in Get Out (2017), does not exhibit cry-behavior in reaction to physical pain. She reacts with laughter and retaliates by inflicting pain onto others. Rose uses cry-behavior to weaponize her white femininity, playing into the stereotype of the damsel in distress to protect herself from who she believed were the police coming to “rescue” her. Modern films such as Get Out show how the female perpetrator might use her emotions to shift blame onto the male victim. In contrast to female horror representations, the male lead, Chris, does not sob when he is attacked. He downplays and internalizes his cry-behavior through gasps, hyperventilating, and shedding an occasional tear.

Conclusion

Although the representation of women as weak in horror films has lessened, women are still more likely than men to be depicted as unstable and excessively emotional. Modern horror films are beginning to undermine traditional notions of feminine vulnerability and have morphed emotional pain into either a catalyst for vengeful violence or fierce protection. As we work to unlearn societal understandings of emotion as a form of weakness, men demonstrate cry-behavior in times of distress. While improving, the gender imbalance of how men and women communicate distress in these films persists.

References

Brescoll, V. L. (2016). Leading with their hearts? How gender stereotypes of emotion lead to biased evaluations of female leaders. the Leadership Quarterly, 27(3), 415–428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2016.02.005

Bylsma, L. M., Gračanin, A., & Vingerhoets, A. J. J. M. (2019). The neurobiology of human crying. Clinical autonomic research: Official journal of the clinical autonomic research society, 29(1), 63–73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10286-018-0526-y

Cowan, G., O’Brien, M. (1990). Gender and survival vs. death in slasher films: A content analysis. Sex Roles, 23, 187–196. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00289865

Gračanin, A., Bylsma, L. M., & Vingerhoets, A. J. (2014). Is crying a self-soothing behavior? Frontiers in psychology, 5, 502. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00502 

Manaar Kamil, S. & Jubran, H. S. Y. (2019). The representation of women in the horror movies: A study in selected Horror movies. Communication and Linguistics Studies, 5(1), 14. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.cls.20190501.13

Moscozo, R. D. (2016). Language in Postmodern Horror: Shifting Away from Stereotype to Heroine. Colloquy, 12, 66-86.

Mundorf, N., Weaver, J., & Zillmann, D. (1989). Effects of gender roles and self perceptions on affective reactions to horror films. Sex Roles, 20(11), 655–673. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00288078

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Three Stars is for Authenticity: Cuisine and its Impact on Yelp Reviews

Sociolinguistics

Mae Altarac, Chloe Chang, Alyssa Cheung, Larissa Li, Tiffany Lieu

Societal expectations affect nearly every aspect of our daily lives, even extending as far as what we choose to include in restaurant reviews. Although the main purpose of reading reviews is to learn about the restaurant itself, researchers can also learn about patterns of stereotypes based on the content of reviews. In our study, we aim to explore whether the inherent biases in reviews are influenced by expectations of the restaurant’s cuisine and price point. The intersection between culture and restaurant reviews has been informally explored extensively on social media. For instance, TikTok user RocketJump (2022), in his viral video, made the claim that 3.5 stars is the ideal “sweet spot” for authentic Chinese food – potentially reflecting different expectations across cultures. Guided by three hypotheses, our research found that Chinese restaurants at higher price points were more likely to receive negative reviews than American restaurants while the reverse is true for cheaper restaurants. In addition, we found patterns in reviews indicating that Chinese restaurants tend to focus more on food quality than American restaurants, and that reviews for more expensive restaurants focused more on service in comparison to cheaper restaurants. Price and cuisine greatly affected lexical decisions when it came to reviewing restaurants, reflecting preconceived biases reviewers held.

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Introduction and Background

As our society becomes more globalized, intercultural exchanges have increasingly permeated people’s everyday lives. Some of the most prevalent sites for such exchanges are restaurants, for which popular review websites like Yelp provide a vast pool of data to study. Existing studies on Yelp reviews focus on factors within the reviewer that influence the content of the review. For instance, a study on Mexican restaurant reviews linked a focus on authenticity in the reviews with a desire to seem worldly (Gottlieb, 2015). While this research establishes motivation for users leaving reviews, there is little discussion about how these differences manifest themselves in reviews based on the cuisines of restaurants. Additionally, as a general trend, cultural restaurants are the targets of more othering language in reviews by people from outside the culture (Mkono, 2011). Within the broad category of cultural restaurants, Chinese restaurants, in particular, have experienced an increase in negative reviews since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic (Kim & Kam, 2023). Since 2020, Chinese restaurants have become an increasingly necessary field of study to explore the effects of the pandemic on discrimination. This research project attempts to fill a gap in the literature by exploring the research question: Does the cultural identity and price point of a restaurant impact the consumer’s reviews of the establishment? Through analysis of reviews, we examine how word choice and content are guided by cuisine.

Methods

We compiled Yelp reviews from Chinese and American restaurants in Westwood in Los Angeles, California in a similar manner to existing studies (Gottlieb, 2015). In total, we selected eight restaurants to study: two Chinese restaurants and two American restaurants from the $-$$ range on Yelp, and two Chinese restaurants and two American restaurants from the $$$-$$$$ range. To maintain consistency and ensure sufficient data, we selected the most popular restaurants in these categories from Yelp’s database. By sampling from multiple price points, we aimed to mitigate the influence of price on any culturally-related disparities in restaurant reviews.

Data was gathered from a four-year period (2020-2024) to reduce year-to-year variations and outdated reviews. Furthermore, we focused on data from 2020 onwards as the COVID-19 pandemic has shown to have a negative impact on the reviews of many Chinese restaurants (Kim & Kam, 2023). Data prior to this time range could skew results due to discrepancies in perceptions of Chinese restaurants before and after the start of the pandemic.

Reviews were categorized as negative if they fell within the 1 to 2-star range on Yelp and positive if they fell within the 4 or 5-star range. Utilizing content analysis, a coder read through reviews and tallied all mentions of comments from each of the following categories: food quality, service quality, cleanliness, ambiance, and value.

For our main and second hypothesis, we controlled for the variable of price by aggregating and comparing reviews of Chinese and American restaurants within the same price range, either lower-priced ($-$$) or higher-priced ($$$-$$$$). To test the third hypothesis, we compared reviews from the four expensive restaurants with those from the four cheap restaurants with the selected sample.

Results and Analysis

Hypothesis I, which proposes that Chinese restaurants are more likely to receive negative reviews compared to American restaurants, is partially supported by our data. We compared the proportion of negative reviews for Chinese and American restaurants within the same price range, calculating this by dividing the number of negative reviews by the total number of reviews for each restaurant type. The results, shown in Figure 1, indicate that in the cheap price range, Chinese restaurants received a lower proportion of negative reviews (0.09) than American restaurants (0.24), contrary to our hypothesis. However, in the expensive price range, Chinese restaurants received a higher proportion of negative reviews (0.55) compared to American restaurants (0.22), which supports the hypothesis. With p-values of less than .05, both of these results are statistically significant. In addition, it is worth noting that American restaurants had a relatively consistent proportion of negative reviews across different price ranges, whereas Chinese restaurants saw a higher proportion of negative reviews at higher prices. This aligns with Roest and Rindfleisch’s (2010) finding that people are more critical of expensive restaurants, but our data indicates that this increased scrutiny specifically applies to Chinese restaurants but not American restaurants.

Figure 1. Proportion of negative reviews by restaurant types and price range Hypothesis II, which is that all reviews of Chinese restaurants will tend to emphasize

Hypothesis II, which is that all reviews of Chinese restaurants will tend to emphasize food quality more than those of American restaurants, is supported. Reviews were split into positive (4-5 stars) and negative (1-2 stars) and sorted into five categories: Food Quality, Service, Cleanliness, Ambiance, and Value. We compared the proportion of each category for both positive and negative reviews. Figure 2 presents the proportion of each category in positive reviews. Positive reviews for all four types of restaurants emphasize food quality the most. The proportions of food quality in positive reviews for both cheap (0.91) and expensive (0.91) Chinese restaurants are higher than those for cheap (0.8) and expensive (0.73) American restaurants. Figure 3 displays the proportion of each category in negative reviews. Proportions of negative reviews focusing on food quality are higher for cheap (0.89) and expensive (0.64) Chinese restaurants compared to cheap (0.39) and expensive (0.45) American restaurants. At both the positive and negative levels, the p-values are less than .05 and are thus significant.

Figure 2. Proportion of positive review categories by restaurant types. The solid lines represent Chinese restaurants; the dashed lines represent American restaurants

Figure 3. Proportion of negative review categories by restaurant types. The solid lines represent Chinese restaurants; the dashed lines represent American restaurants

Hypothesis III, which states that all reviews of high-end restaurants will place a greater emphasis on service compared to less expensive establishments, is supported. We compared the same sample of restaurants at the two different price points and calculated the proportion of reviews focused on service for all restaurants studied. As illustrated in Figure 4, expensive Chinese restaurants have higher proportions of both negative (0.38) and positive (0.62) reviews emphasizing service compared to cheap Chinese restaurants, which have proportions of 0.28 for negative reviews and 0.43 for positive reviews. The same pattern is observed in American restaurants, although the difference in proportions across the cheap and expensive American restaurants is not as pronounced. Nonetheless, with p-values all less than .05, these results are significant.

Figure 4. Proportion of positive and negative service reviews by restaurant types Discussion & Conclusion

Human perception and communication are shaped by existing stereotypes and preconceived notions of biases upheld by social groups. The results of our study indicate that, within the restaurant industry, the cultural background of a restaurant plays a significant role in determining the type of reviews it receives, particularly in the context of price. Our data suggests that consumers may hold different standards for high-end Chinese restaurants, potentially influenced by societal expectations that “authentic” ethnic restaurants will be “dirtier” (Gottlieb, 2015). Additionally, our data indicates that food quality is a dominant theme in reviews for Chinese restaurants, regardless of whether the review is positive or negative – suggesting that patrons of Chinese restaurants may prioritize food quality more when evaluating their dining experience. Moreover, the focus on service in reviews of high-end restaurants, regardless of cuisine, underscores the critical role that service quality plays in shaping consumer perceptions in upscale dining contexts (Aktaş Polat, 2022). With the proliferation of these reviews, the corresponding stereotypes about ethnic restaurants, cultural focuses, and expectations based on price level are continually reinforced and spread. Not only do these findings have implications for the patronage of restaurants, but they also impact how cultural institutions and groups are perceived and treated. Future research examining how these patterns and trends exist across dining establishments in different regions could increase awareness of social biases embedded within reviewing sites like Yelp, fostering a more culturally sensitive society.

References

Aktaş Polat, S. (2022). Analysis of fine dining restaurant reviews for perception of Customers Restaurant Service Quality. Journal of Tourism and Gastronomy Studies. https://doi.org/10.21325/jotags.2022.974

Gottlieb, D. (2015). “Dirty, authentic…delicious”: Yelp, Mexican restaurants, and the appetites of Philadelphia’s new middle class. Gastronomica, 15(2), 39–48. https://doi.org/10.1525/gfc.2015.15.2.39

Kim, E., & Kam, C. (2023). Othering in everyday life: Anti-Chinese bias in the COVID-19 pandemic. Public Opinion Quarterly, 87(3), 733–748. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfad035

Mkono, M. (2011). The othering of food in touristic eatertainment: A netnography. Tourist Studies, 11(3), 253–270. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468797611431502

Roest, H., & Rindfleisch, A. (2010). The influence of quality cues and typicality cues on restaurant purchase intention. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 17(1), 10–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2009.08.007

Wong, F. [@rocketjump]. (2022, September 12). Why I only go to Chinese Restaurants with 3.5 star ratings [Video]. TikTok.

https://vm.tiktok.com/ZTLoh5Sqp/

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How Slang Creates and Perpetuates Gendered Power Dynamics in Greek Life

Bilingualism, Sociolinguistics

Alexa Waldman, Teresa Humbert, Morgan Moseley, Luke Kim

Prior to joining greek life, I was exposed to the stereotype that sorority girls were mean and hierarchical whereas fraternity boys were friendly and laid back. I was told to be prepared for girls to make comments that impose their superiority to make me feel small. However, during rush, I found that I was addressed with respect in every conversation. The girls always made sure to use words like “affordable” instead of “cheap,” and constantly parroted that slang phrase “Panhel love,” which means that each sorority chapter has love and respect for the rest.

On the other hand, boys who had gone through fraternity recruitment expressed that they were not treated with respect and that the older members made sure to establish power imbalances. They would use words like “facey”, meaning that someone is good looking enough to be in the fraternity and “moldable”, meaning that someone has good traits but can become better if he joins the fraternity. They used these terms in front of the potential members to impose their authority.

In our project, we studied slang used by sorority and fraternity members in order to determine how patterned language usage has the power to create and perpetuate gendered power imbalances and interorganizational hierarchies.

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Introduction and Background

Greek Life, which dates back to the 18th century, is a significant part of campus communities all across America. While many individuals see Greek life as a way to gain friendships and connections, the portrayal of Greek life in media, such as film and on social platforms, has suggested power imbalances within the institution and has casted a negative light on the organizations. Many stereotypes portray sorority girls as snobby and clicky, and portray fraternity members as inclusive and laid back. Our group was interested in investigating if there is truth behind these narratives.

We addressed the gap in patterned slang use between sorority and fraternity members to determine how speech can point to and maintain power imbalances. We predicted that because members of each individual organization share common language patterning, slang could be used to reinforce group identities. Moreover, we predicted that differences in communication practices between fraternities and sororities (as seen through slang) reflect and reinforce underlying gender power imbalances.

When taking a closer look, we found that there are flaws in the stereotypes surrounding Greek Life. In fact, our preconceived notions that sorority girls are clicky and enforce power imbalances, and that fraternity members are more inclusive and have less of a hierarchical structure were not supported by our evidence. Instead, by analyzing speech patterning in these

institutions, we found that fraternity members use slang to create a hierarchical structure within their chapter, compete with other fraternities, and facilitate gender imbalances of power between sororities and fraternities. On the other hand, we found that sorority members tend to have a symmetrical power dynamic within their chapters and promote friendship and inclusion with the other sororities through their use of slang. Overall, our research challenges the stereotypes that surround Greek life, revealing the flaws in common narratives about the power dynamics within Greek Life communities

Methods

Our research was conducted in sorority and fraternity houses over the course of a month. Each person in our group sat down with members of Greek Life for interviews that lasted about 20-30 minutes each. The interviewer asked open-ended questions in order to allow the sorority and fraternity members to freely explain their experiences. In the interviews, we asked questions such as “can you describe the slang words used most in your chapter? How does slang suggest/ create power imbalances? What topics does your slang refer to the most?” Some questions differed for sorority and fraternity members as we wanted to understand how each institution perceived the other. We asked sorority members what slang they thought fraternity members use the most and what topics they believed this slang surrounded. We asked fraternity members the same questions about sorority members.

We also focused on understanding relationships within and between sororities as well as within and between fraternities. For this reason, we interviewed people from different grades, from different chapters, and with different positions of power. For example, we questioned the president of a fraternity along with a sophomore and a freshman. We similarly talked to members on the executive boards of different sororities, and interviewed seniors, juniors, sophomores, and freshmen in these same organizations. We interviewed people in different positions/ grades in two fraternities and three sororities.

Interviewing a diverse range of people within multiple chapters of both sororities and fraternities gave us a multifaceted picture of the contexts in which slang is used, how slang is used, why slang is used, and the effect of slang. This researching process specifically gave us insights into how slang has different purposes and effects when used by sororities and fraternities.

Results and Analysis

Our research demonstrates how sorority members harness slang to facilitate an environment of inclusion and harmony within and between sorority chapters. On the other hand, we found that fraternity members utilize slang to create power imbalances within chapters, between chapters, and between fraternities and sororities. Many fraternity brothers discussed that power imbalances within their organization were especially evident in the difference of social status between new members and brothers that had already been initiated into the chapter. For example, new members are called “pledges” in every fraternity. This slang word is

used to emphasize their inferiority to the rest of the boys in the chapter. In one chapter, new members are collectively called “the stinkys” to signify that they smell bad, a further example of how official members degrade their new members. 95% of the fraternity members we interviewed said that they had experienced being talked down to while they were going through the recruitment process.

Figure 1

On the other hand, many sorority members expressed how they did not feel the pressure of power imbalances during recruitment or within their chapter. For example, active members in the sorority Alpha Phi were calling the new members “Phisters” – a chapter-specific slang word for “sisters” — from the moment that they got their bid. Furthermore, even though new members are typically called “pledges,” which has connotations of inferiority, sororities are in the habit of abbreviating “pledge class” to “PC” in order to rid the slang of its power to demean new members. While fraternity brothers relinquish the title of “pledge” the moment they are initiated as members, sorority members continue to refer to their “PC” in terms of the community and cohesiveness of each group that joined the sorority at the same time. In interviewing sorority sisters, we found that only 2% of members felt that they were talked down to during recruitment.

Figure 2

Through our interviewing process, we also encountered slang that perpetuated gendered power dynamics between sororities and fraternities. Our data suggested that this type of slang is used mainly by fraternity men towards or about sorority members. For example, fraternity men use derogatory slang words such as “ran through ” and “been around” to describe women that they want to demean for being (what they consider to be) overly sexually active. Sorority women expressed that when fraternity men act in the same way, it is considered normal and there are no slang words used to discuss them in a negative light. This example demonstrates how slang is used to perpetuate power imbalances that are prevalent throughout the country within gender-specific institutions.

Discussion and Conclusions

Overall, our research suggests that sororities have a more egalitarian and encouraging culture whereas fraternities have a clear hierarchical structure and competitive environment. These findings add to our understanding of gendered power dynamics in social organizations. The hierarchical nature of fraternity culture is reflected in the slang they use, which highlights the competitive environment and the importance of rank and authority.

Our research indicates that these organizations’ internal cultures are significantly shaped by their communication patterns as members of fraternities and sororities speak in ways that both reflect and perpetuate their respective power structures. Fraternity men use slang to enforce power imbalances which produces a feedback loop: the more slang is used to create imbalances, the more imbalances exist, and thus the more this slang is used. On the other hand, sorority women utilize slang to establish a cohesive and inclusive environment, and this environment breeds further use of unifying speech patterning. Additionally, our study emphasizes how crucial it is to evaluate media representations of social groupings and prejudices as our research contradicts a widely held presentation of these organizations.

Our research is important in bringing awareness to power imbalances and injustices that go unnoticed or are simply accepted by fraternity members. Our findings may incite fraternity members to evaluate their slang usage and strive to use language that facilitates a more equal, safe, and positive environment in the future. One possible solution is the implementation of workshops and training sessions focused on inclusive and respectful communication within Greek organizations. Educating members about the impact of language can foster a more supportive atmosphere, reducing hierarchical behaviors in fraternities and enhancing the positive dynamics in sororities.

References

Appalachian State University. (2024). Fraternity and sorority life. History of Fraternities/Sororities. https://fsl.appstate.edu/history-of-greek-life

Handler, L. (1995). In the Fraternal Sisterhood: Sororities as Gender Strategy. Gender and Society, 9(2), 236–255. http://www.jstor.org/stable/189873

Izmaylova, G. A., Zamaletdinova, G. R., & Zholshayeva, M. S. (2017). Linguistic and social features of slang. International Journal of Scientific Study, 5(6), 75-78. 10.17354/ijssSept/2017/016

McLemore, C. A. (1991). The pragmatic interpretation of English intonation: Sorority speech (Order No. 9128305). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses A&I; ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (303946119).https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/pragmatic-interpretation-en glish-intonation/docview/303946119/se-2?accountid=14512

Morgan, Emma, “Losing Yourself: Cults, Greeks, and Sociological Theories of Self and Identity” (2021). Honors Program Theses. 138. https://scholarship.rollins.edu/honors/138

Rowan University. (2024). “Benefits.” Benefits of Greek Life. https://sites.rowan.edu/oslp/greekaffairs/benefits/

Scott, John Finley. (1965). “The American College Sorority: Its Role in Class and Ethnic Endogamy.” American Sociological Review, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 514–27. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/2091341

Thompson, Bailey Airs. (2017). “#Sorority girl: The Sorority Socialization Process through the Construction and Maintenance of the Individual and Chapter Sorority Identity.” DSpace Repository, 1-15. ttu-ir.tdl.org/items/742e3cc2-4d41-4b94-9efe-018b9bf98f54.

The Sexist Side of Hollywood Interviews

Bilingualism, Sociolinguistics

Emily Chinn, Kai Wang, Soleil Danico, and Takuma Sato

In order for a movie to become a blockbuster, it needs to be properly promoted. Press tours are some of the most common tactics for garnering attention for an upcoming film and give the actors the platform to showcase their passion and personality. Still, the differentiation of questions and communication between actors and actresses is undoubtedly prevalent.  The present article focuses on identifying the distinct patterns of gendered communication evident in celebrity press tour interviews. By viewing and analyzing the press tour interviews of actresses, we found a common pattern of questions that focus on physical appearance, project traditional gender roles, or are uncomfortable and unnecessarily sexual. Our results led us to the conclusion that there is a distinct gendered difference in the word choice and questions of actresses and actors, prompting the urge for more equitable questions and proper training in the entertainment industry.

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Generational Differences in Social Media Communication

Sociolinguistics

Giordano Camera, Dylan Carr, Phoebe Haas, Nicole Wasserman

Have you wondered why your dad sends you extremely long texts compared to your best friends, who use memes and slang phrases for most of their communication? In our study, we explored two generations, Generation Z and Generation X and their language use on online social networking sites. We studied different social media posts between the two generations and looked at the differences in how they communicate, especially using text-dominant platforms. We used a plethora of social media sites to validate our findings, but our main areas of study were Facebook and Twitter/X. Our study concluded that Generation Z uses fewer words, more images in their post, and more slang phrases than Generation X does. We want our findings to highlight the contrast between the way these two generations communicate, as miscommunication can lead to unnecessary conflict. Our research contributes to the process of cataloging online communication trends among different generations.

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Introduction

Our group aimed to study the differences in how different generations communicate on various social media platforms. Since its creation, social media has become a place where individuals can communicate with each other in ways they could not have before. People also tend to communicate on a topic that is currently popular in a particular social group, regardless of age (You et al. 2017). Using that factor, we can find valuable data that proves our hypothesis correct. Our research method proved perfectly accurate, as all of our data was correct, with minimal gaps in our study. Our group hopes that the data findings we provided also propel researchers to study differences in communication for other generations. The prevalence of social media is only growing, so our data can act as a stepping stone for future studies.

Methods

Our primary method of data collection revolved around influential people on social media. We would look at social media posts discussing a variety of topics (such as sports, popular culture, and politics) in order to look at data from a wide range of people, like Donald Trump. We made sure to expose ourselves to Generation Z and Xers from each perspective. This is because there are a lot of varying opinions by a diverse group of people on popular posts compared to smaller tweets that may have more of a hive-mind mentality. In addition, we looked at a variety of topics to get stronger evidence and to ensure the communication differences we found were not due to any topic differences (Achinstein, 1994).

Originally, we planned to contact people on Twitter or Facebook to gather their age, but instead, we only targeted accounts where they said their age in a previous post/bio or where it was publicly available (like a celebrity). Once we collected twenty Twitter/Facebook accounts from each generation, we randomly selected three accounts from each generation to really do a deep dive on. While we didn’t interview the people behind the social media accounts that we found like the researchers at Pennsylvania state did, we found that it was unnecessary as all information was available publicly (Zhao and Rosson 2009). In a matched pairs case study, we assembled all of the posts in an easy to view format and then compared the content of each generation’s posts. We noticed a variety of clashing factors across generations, and simultaneously noticed similarities within.

Results

After conducting our research, we found that there were many differences between the ways Generation X and Generation Z communicate online in posts and tweets on social media. Our results showed that differences in online communication was not dependent on the topic of the post or tweet (ie. sports, popular culture, politics) nor the social status of the user (ie. celebrity or common folk), but rather the age generation of the user.

One difference we found in the posts and tweets we analyzed was the number of words that each generation tended to put in their post/tweet. As seen in Chart 1 below, the average number of words on a post/tweet by a member of Generation X was 67 words and the median was 43 words. As seen in Chart 2, the average number of words by a member of Generation Z was 13.4 words, with the median being 11 words. From this, we concluded that Generation X tended to conduct more lengthy and descriptive posts with complete sentences in comparison to the younger Generation Z.

Another difference between the generations we found from our results includes the tendency for Generation Z to incorporate pictures in their posts/tweets and for the lack of imagery in posts/tweets by Generation X. Below is an instance where a member of Generation Z, Bilbo Baggins, uses a picture in their tweet about Trump’s recent conviction and the member of Generation X, Patrick Jones, does not.

Another contrast was the tendency for Generation X to more likely include words in all capital letters and the tendency for Generation Z to have slang terms in their posts/tweets. Below is an instance where a member of Generation Z, bella, uses a slang term, “brain rot” and the member of Generation X, Richard Shepard, does not include any slang words. The term “brain rot” is a slang term used by Generation Z (TikTok “Brain Rot”: How TikTok Is Changing the Way Gen Z Speaks | Redbrick Life&Style, 2024). Also in the example below, the member of Generation X has two words in all capital letters while the member of Generation Z only has one, and it is a shorter word. Both users are discussing the recent “Challengers” movie.

Discussion

Our findings demonstrate clear online communication trends within both generations that are not shared by the other generational group. These distinct patterns in writing and visual communication on social media add to our understanding of how different generations communicate in ways that do not always align with one another. These differences can contribute to intergenerational misinterpretations and tension. Our project identified what some of the prominent generational patterns on social media are, which are beneficial findings that provide a basis for wider intergenerational understanding. Additionally, it lays the groundwork for future research, such as the intricacies of these patterns and how the other generation perceives them.

The results of our research aid in our understanding of two broader phenomena: generational differences and online communication trends. As social media continues to grow and become a staple in people of all ages’ lives, it becomes a new arena for intergenerational tension to arise and unfold. Certain aspects of an age group’s communication can be specific and unique, and does not usually reflect ill intent. This knowledge is important for maintaining dialogues between multiple age groups, so that they do not fall to misunderstandings due to believing a form of speech was rude. For example, Gen X’s use of all capital letters for certain words could potentially be read as aggressive by a younger person who rarely does so, while Gen Z’s use of slang and images may appear unserious or confusing to an older person. Previous research has demonstrated similar phenomena, such as younger people finding the use of periods in text messages to have a negative valence and make the message insincere (Gunraj et al., 2015). Knowing these communication methods are simply an attribute of their generation can ease any potential misgivings on the receiver’s end.

Analyzing the patterns found in our research can also contribute to future literature about online trends and cycles. Gen Z especially uses numerous contemporary references and constantly evolving slang terms and reference images that reflect the state of the internet and popular culture, particularly within their generation’s main bubble on the web. Our findings contribute to the academic understanding of social media trend cycles and communication.

In conclusion, our research begins to catalog numerous generation-specific social media communication patterns into the literature on online communication. We provide many examples of observable differences between how Generation X and Generation Z structure text-based posts on social networking sites, often in ways that directly contrast each other. Though we can offer hypothetical insights into potential misunderstandings these may cause, we recognize that further research is required to analyze these trends in full and begin to study how they verifiably contribute to intergenerational conflict.

References

Achinstein, P. (1994). Stronger Evidence. Philosophy of Science, 61(3), 329–350. https://www.jstor.org/stable/188049?seq=21

Gunraj, D. N., Drumm-Hewitt, A. M., Dashow, E. M., Upadhyay, S. S. N., & Klin, C. M. (2015, November 22). Texting insincerely: The role of the period in text messaging. ScienceDirect. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0747563215302181?via%3Dihub

TikTok “Brain Rot”: How TikTok Is Changing The Way Gen Z Speaks | Redbrick Life&Style. (2024, April 22). Redbrick. https://www.redbrick.me/tiktok-brain-rot-how-tiktok-is-changing-the-way-gen-z-speaks/#:~:text=The%20language%20associated%20with%20Generation

You, Q., García-García, D., Paluri, M., Luo, J., & Joo, J. (2017). Cultural Diffusion and Trends in Facebook Photographs. Proceedings of the International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media, 11(1), 347-356. https://doi.org/10.1609/icwsm.v11i1.14902

Zhao, Dejin, and Mary Beth Rosson. (2009). How and why people twitter. Proceedings of the ACM International Conference on Supporting Group Work, https://doi.org/10.1145/1531674.1531710.

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